The Science of Homeopathy

Most U.S. medical professionals, and some astronomy/physics professors too, believe that homeopathy is nothing but pseudoscience, or, a set of established ideas that are not scientifically based. According to Wikipedia, “Homeopathy is rejected as pseudoscience (functioning to some extent through the placebo effect) by the majority of the scientific and medical establishment in the United States” (www.wikipedia.org). However, without a clear understanding of what homeopathy is, how it works, or why it works differently than conventional medicine, such unsubstantiated disbelief makes good sense. The purpose here is to remove any inappropriate “pseudoscience” labels, and prove that homeopathy is not pseudoscience, but instead, an emerging science (i.e. it launches sound principles for further research which can be peer reviewed) that renders real, empirical data and results. A holistic, scientifically grounded approach to homeopathy and treatment will be offered. This will be done in five parts: first, a brief background of homeopathy will be presented; second, a definition, description, and premise for what homeopathy is will be provided; third, an explanation will given to explain why homeopathy fulfills the definition of science; fourth, serious risks of using homeopathy will be exposed; and fifth, a closing discussion will address the increasingly common integration of alternative treatment/medicine with the practice of conventional treatment/medicine.

The first step to understanding homeopathy is to reveal its history. According to D'Huyvetter & Cohrssen, “homeopathy dates back 2400 years ago to Hippocrates (2002). However, since its development by German physician Samuel Hahnemann in the early 1800s, “homeopathy has been widely accepted and practiced in Europe ever since and is now the leading alternative therapy used there” (Walker, 15). The main difference between homeopathic treatment in the United States and Europe is that homeopathic remedies in the U.S. are subject to regulation by the Food and Drug Administration. Ironically, Walker warns: “In the September 1997 issue of U.S. News & World Report, as many as 140,000 people die annually from adverse reactions to prescription drugs approved as ‘safe and effective’ by the FDA” (14). Homeopathic treatment, on the contrary, “is not only safe and effective, but are without side effects” (Walker, 13) As such, it is worthy of further scientific study. And, even if scientific elitists consider it a pseudoscience, it’s still safer.

The second step is to define what homeopathy is. In her book, The Alternative Pharmacy, Dr. Walker explains that, “conventional medicine works chemically, whereas homeopathic remedies work on an energetic level. / Homeopathy, therefore, works energetically to stimulate the body’s natural ability to heal itself” (13). The result of this difference between conventional medicine and homeopathic treatment is that symptoms are encouraged instead of suppressed. Although the “alternative medicine…has no chemically active ingredients” (www.wikipedia.org), the body flushes out the toxins, instead of suppressing them. Then, the remedy stimulates the body’s natural defenses, and health and balance is restored. For example, a flu shot works similarly because the inactivated virus triggers the immune system to react by producing antibodies which are programmed to attack it. If the person is exposed to the flu afterwards, his or her immune system recognizes the virus and kills it. This prevents future exposure to sickness. Merrell and Shalts argue that this is similar to traditional Chinese medicine, because “it emphasizes the self-healing potential of the human body” (4). Further, these remedies consist of “minute doses of natural mineral, plant or animal substances” (Walker, 14). At present, though, “no explanation of mechanisms by which homeopathic medicines affect biological systems is available. / The debate around homeopathy always has focused essentially on the legitimacy of a practice for which a plausible scientific explanation for its mechanism of action has been persistently lacking” (Merrell, Homeopathy). The concepts of how energy and matter interface is not perfectly clear. However, there are more slightly clear explanations that explain the molecular make-up and chemistry of homeopathy. Wikipedia sites one study where, “recent research (BBC News: Fresh Clue to Homeopathy Mystery) indicates that in certain situations the further diluted the substance, the more its molecules tend to clump together” (Wikipedia, 8) Although homeopathy does not have the amount of empirical data, this does not mean that is does not work. Defenders of homeopathy, Wikipedia sites, point out the example of aspirin, “which was used for years without anyone knowing how it worked” (www.wikipedia.org). Since the make-up of homeopathy has been introduced, the “basic scientific tenets ” must be explained (Merrell & Shalts).

Homeopathy has been defined, but the make-up of its basic premise, and different types must be made clear. The foundation for homeopathy is essentially based on Hahnemann’s two “natural laws.” The first tenet is called “the law of similars,” or that a “substance can heal a disease if it causes the same symptoms when given in a stronger dose to a healthy person (Walker, 15). In fact, the word homeopathy, from the Greek words homeos and pathos, means "similar suffering." Second, is the “law of infinitesimals,” or the more the substance is diluted, “the more potent it becomes” (www.wikipedia.org). The highest and strongest potencies are the most dilute. Walker explains that the remedies potency can be increased by higher dilutions or even succussing (i.e. shaking it vigorously). (15)

Two distinct categories of homeopathic treatment include classical and clinical (Merrell & Shalts, 2002). First, clinical treatment mimics first aid treatment because minor ailments like rashes, indigestion, and stage fright can easily be treated. This safe and effective manner of treatment requires little skill because low-potency remedies are considered safe and effective. Next, classical treatment, which works on a deeper level, aims to treat the whole person. Walker argues that “constitutional homeopaths can make deep profound changes in health with single, high-potency doses of homeopathic remedies given over a long periods of time” (14). The whole person is treated and not just the symptoms alone.

The third step is to expose the dangers involved when the remedy gets in the wrong hands, even though homeopathic treatment is considered safe. Three distinct problems can emerge if one is not careful. For example, self-diagnosing or self-medicating with homeopathic remedies could ignore larger health issues. Walker argues, “treatment is individualized and largely dependent on the practitioners experience in selecting the correct remedy” (Walker, 15). Help from a professional homeopath is necessary. Another example of how homeopathy could potentially be harmful is when the remedy is confused with other types of alternative medicine (i.e. herbal remedies). “A common misconception is that homeopathic remedies use only (natural and thus presume to be safe) herbal components, but that is herbology” (www.wikipedia.org). Although the basic source is herbal in both, homeopathy “gets diluted beyond measurable quantities” (www.wikipedia.org). Herbal remedies, on the other hand, have measurable amounts of herbs in the remedy. Third, when using homeopathic treatment, it is necessary take certain precautions.

Walker lists these as “general considerations when using homeopathic remedies” (16). Such basics as mint (e.g. toothpaste, floss, gum, tea, etc.), coffee, camphor, menthol, eucalyptus, and even tea tree oil must be avoided. Because the energy in these substances is much higher, the remedy, in effect, will be rendered ineffective and therefore, wasted. Moreover, homeopathic remedies cannot be touched by hands. Such contact also inactivates the remedy. The remedies must also be kept “in a dark place, away from perfumes, medications, foods, herbs, and all strong smelling substances” (Walker, 17). This will also cause damage to the remedy. Storage of remedies in a closet, kept in a Tupperware container, for instance, will preserve the remedy.

Last, Walker also recommends to never letting remedies be x-rayed while traveling. “When remedies are x-rayed, they will be damaged by competing radiation” (17). Without prior knowledge of proper usage and care of homeopathic remedies, treatment cannot only be dangerous, but, in essence, a waste of time and money.

To determine if homeopathy is a true science, the word “science” must first be defined. The American Heritage Dictionary defines “science” as, “the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon.” In other words, a true subject of science must be able to be proved false, withstand the scientific method, and also be peer reviewed.

Science is a process of figuring things out. The fact is, whether the technology or the right formula is not yet available for figuring everything out, scientists do not know everything about everything. For example, for the sake of argument, astronomers/physicists still struggle to determine the exact age of the universe. However, a series of studies on homeopathy revealed real, empirical evidence. For example, Wikipedia sites a study conducted by Dana Ullman, author of The Consumer’s Guide to Homeopathy. Ullman 1991 study shows that homeopathy is peer reviewed and therefore a science:

three professors of medicine from the Netherlands, none of them homeopaths, performed a meta-analysis of twenty-five years of clinical studies using homeopathic medicines and published their results in the journal British Medical Journal. This meta-analysis covered 107 controlled trials, of which 81 showed that homeopathic medicines were effective, 24 showed they were ineffective, and 2 were inconclusive. The professor’s concluded, “The amount of positive results came as a surprise to us” (www.wikipedia.org).

Another study, cited by Walker reveals further validation through the scientific community:
on September 29, 1997 , the British medical journal Lancet reported the results of a meta-analysis (a systematic review of a body of research) of 89 blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials of homeopathy. It found that the homeopathic medicines used in those studies had an average effect that was 2.45 times greater than placebos. (17)

A third convincing study, cited by Merrell & Shalts, reveals further empirical evidence in support of homeopathic treatment. Accordingly, a “double-blind, placebo-controlled study from Harvard found that the homeopathic treatment of mild traumatic brain injury (60 subjects) was beneficial. The authors suggested that homeopathy may have a role in treating persistent mild traumatic brain injury.” (2002)

Another study eliminates the possibility of the placebo effect on animals. Walker notes a laboratory study that involved rats: “Researchers gave rats crude doses of arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, mercury chloride, or lead. Animals pretreated with homeopathic doses of these substances before and after exposure to the crude substances excreted more of the toxic crude substances through urine, feces, and sweat than did animals pretreated with a placebo” (14). In a similar manner, the toxins were flushed out in the animals as the symptoms in humans are “flushed out.”

Theses studies provide empirical evidence and data that illustrates that homeopathy does work, whether on humans or animals. Peers have even reviewed these studies. However, according to the scientific method of determining what is science and what is not, the results must also be proved false.

Merrell & Shalts refer to several negative clinical studies were the results after homeopathic treatment were deemed useless: “Studies done on homeopathy in treatment of migraine headaches consistently have shown negative results. One study done in children with recurrent upper respiratory tract infections found no difference with homeopathy in terms of sick days and use of antibiotics. Placebo and treatment groups had fewer flare-ups, which was attributed to counseling patients about preventive measures.” (14)

Despite the empirical evidence available, the peer reviewed articles and/or journals, or even the support from the science community, more future, well-conducted, randomized trials are essential for accepting homeopathy as a mainstream medicine. Therefore, even though its roots trace back circa 2400 years ago, it could still be considered an emerging science (in its young stages). Although the efficacy debate of homeopathy remains, Merrell & Shalts argue that “increasing public and professional interests calls for attempts to study homeopathy in a more systematic way in order to provide quality academic overview for medical practitioners” (2002) The growing integration of alternative medicine (i.e. acupuncture, herbology) into conventional medicine “provides a solid interface between many emerging complementary and alternative medicine modalities, including homeopathy” (Merrell & Shalts, 2002). This makes good sense because, according to a recent news report, “more than 40% of Americans take at least one prescription drug and one-in-six takes at least three” (www.usatoday.com). In a time when the average American prescription-drug user may experience side effects caused by the drug, as mentioned earlier, homeopathy could be the answer to safety and health.


Bibliography

Arocho, Victoria. “More than 40% of Americans using prescription drugs.” USA TODAY 12 December 2004. (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2004-12-02-medicated-america_x.htm?POE=click-refer)

D'Huyvetter & Cohrssen, “Homeopathy,” Journal of Primary Care 29(2) 407-18, viii (2002)

Merrell, Shalts, “Homeopathy, ” Journal of Medical Clinics of North America 86(1): 47-62 (2002)

“Homeopathy.” The American Heritage Dictionary. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company

“Homeopathy.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy)

Walker, Lynne, and Brown Ellen. The Alternative Pharmacy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998.

Euthanasia in Holland

The government’s proposal for the legal regulation of euthanasia, physician assisted suicide and the termination of a patient’s life without his/her request has been approved by the Dutch Parliament. The defense of the this proposal is, to a large extent, based on a specific interpretation of data published in 1991 in the Remmelink Report. In the course of the discussions that followed this proposal, it has been agreed that the following three categories of action should not be considered forms of euthanasia:

1. Stopping or not beginning a treatment at the request of the patient.

2. Withholding a treatment that is medically useless.

3. Pain and symptom treatment with the possible side-effect of shortening life.

The focus of this paper is to discuss both the inter-relation of the Remmelink Report and other data with the new law and, attempt to undermine the effectiveness of national safeguards and the existence of personal autonomy, under the current system.

The findings of the Remmelink Report disclose that 9,000 requests for physician assisted suicide in the Netherlands led to ‘only’ 2,300 cases of euthanasia (Jochemsen, 212). Such data has been used by euthanasia activists to illustrate that, in reality, physicians in the Netherlands are not, in fact, terminating patients on demand. Indeed, this is not the case; however, more significantly, the data illustrates that the request of the patient is not in practice the basis on which physicians decide to perform euthanasia, but rather they base such decisions on the condition of the patient (Jochemsen, 212). This supports the findings that 1,000 patients had their lives terminated without their consent (Jochemsen, 212). In practice, the request seems to function more as a circumstance making euthanasia legally and perhaps ethically, easier for the physician to perform. Respect for patient autonomy has been put forward as the main argument in favor of the acceptance of euthanasia, however the above research is contradictory and undermines the autonomy of the patient.

The result of the Remmelink Report also indicates that 65-75% of physicians falsely and unlawfully certify death by natural causes after performing euthanasia (Jochemsen, 213). These findings demonstrate that the physicians are reluctant to have their life-terminating actions supervised by legal authorities. Even more alarming is the fact that the data indicates that in majority of cases, it is unknown whether the requirements for careful medical practices are even being observed (Jochemsen 213). Such statements are supported by the recent research by Van der Wal. Some of the most significant results can be summarized as follows:

1. Physicians often fail to inform the proper authorities of the circumstance of their patients death due to their desire to avoid administrative complications, or burden the patient’s family with any investigation.

2. The cases that are reported are representative of a sample of all cases in which the requirements of the court have been met, however, this is less so for the unnoticed cases.

3. The reports of cases that are notified describe the situation of the patient in terms that satisfy the requirements of the legal authorities, some of which, are in conflict with the description give in the anonymous inquiry (Jochemsen, 213). In light of the above research, the ability of legal authorities to adequately control the practice of euthanasia is minimal.

The data collected by the Remmelink Committee illustrate that the Dutch Cabinet’s classification of life-terminating actions, are nuclear. The reportable actions are euthanasia, physician assisted suicide and life-terminating actions (Fernigsen, 167). However, the intensification of pain treatment and the withholding of treatment with the explicit intent of shortening life do not come within the definition of these actions, nor under the definition of those actions that are not to be considered euthanasia. Therefore, it remains difficult to determine, whether in the opinion of the Cabinet, such actions should be reported. It is only in the Memorandum of Reply that the ministers make it clear that the intensification of pain and symptom treatment with the intent to shorten life should not be considered normal medical treatment and must therefore be reported (Fernigsen, 167). This is in conflict with the Remmelink findings, which reports that in 60% of the cases where pain treatment was given in such high doses that life was significantly shortened, there had been no request made by the patient (Jochemsen, 213).

Another source found in The Economist, reports that in addition to 2,300 cases of euthanasia in Holland in 1990, a further 1,040 people had their lives terminated without making a formal request for intervention (Euthanasia, 21).

Such figures give pause for thought. One must question the length to which such practices could continue. Consider the severely depressed 50-year old Dutch woman, who in 1991 asked her psychiatrist named Chabot to assist her in her suicide. After consulting with several other doctors, the psychiatrist, agreed to help her die and gave the patient a large quantity of sleeping pills and a toxic poison. The woman took these pills and died shortly after (Spanjer, 1630). This incident was followed by an inquiry by the supreme court of Holland. However, in June that same year, the psychiatrist was not prosecuted, setting a precedent for future cases (Spanjer, 1630). The ineffectiveness of national safeguards as illustrated by the depressed Dutch woman, adds validity to the slippery slope hypothesis.

Johan Legemaate, legal counsel of the Royal Dutch Medical Association responds to criticism of the manner in which euthanasia is practiced in the Netherlands. He argues that in more than two thirds of the cases where patients request euthanasia, it is denied (Euthanasia, 22). He adds that in most such cases, as cited above, life was shortened only by a matter of hours or days. Legemaate declares, “We feel we have succeeded in creating a large amount of openness and accountability” (Euthanasia, 22). However, determining whether a patient’s life was shortened merely by a matter of hours or days is indeed difficult once the patient’s life has already been terminated. Such logic eliminated the possibility of a misdiagnosis, or improvement, no matter how remote in probability. Moreover, critics counter that the result of the system as it exists, is a climate of indifference in which most cases of euthanasia go unreported and patience’s rights are being eroded (Euthanasia, 23). Such evidence exposes the fallacy of the autonomy of euthanasia. Instead of giving more freedom to the patients, doctors are being given more power over them.

Within the system, as it currently exists in Netherlands, physicians are increasingly being given the power to practice life and death over their patients. Considering the preceding statement, a greater question must be posed. On what basis are value judgments being made with regards to which patients are suitable for euthanasia without the request of the patients themselves? When one comes to such realization, the potential dangers of euthanasia become very pronounced. Those who work with the disabled community have been at the forefront of opposition against the termination of patients (Jennish, 16). Lloyd Samson, 44, a volunteer with the Halifax Regional Cerebral Palsy Association, voices his concern when he declares, “the rights of the disabled must be protected . . . when someone plays God, it’s scary” (Jennish, 16). The Council of Canadians with Disabilities and its member organization, Saskatchewan Voice of the Handicapped, are strongly in opposition of euthanasia (Jennish, 16). The fear of the disabled can by no means be considered unreasonable. The autonomy of the handicapped is clearly in danger of being compromised.

For the community of physicians and nurses, euthanasia is troubling because they are trained to heal and save their patients. Killing a patient, even with noble intentions, is in conflict with the very nature of the medical profession. Furthermore, even with the request of the patient for euthanasia, some physicians, however few, may have ethical reservations about performing such a procedure. Many doctors also fear that practicing euthanasia will lead to some patients to regard them as bringers of death (Economist, 42). The growing palliative care branch of medicine has been at the forefront of medical opposition to euthanasia (Cosh, 22). Practitioners in hospices argue that techniques for controlling pain are now so far advanced that fewer people need die in agony. They are concerned that growing availability of euthanasia as an easy option would diminish the compassionate care of those who prefer to let death take its natural course (Cosh, 22). Admirers of the Dutch system of euthanasia believe it to be the more ‘compassionate’ choice, however, in light of the evidence adduced above, we see an inherent contradiction.

The financial cost for palliative care is sizable, however, recent research has shed new light on the less substantial cost of hospices. Many health care experts assume that a huge chunk of medical cost is spent to briefly extend the lives of those patients whoa re to die anyway (Cosh, 38). But a study published in 1994, in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, illustrates the contrary. The report finds that discontinuing life-prolonging treatments for terminally ill patients would in fact, save little money (Cosh, 38). When the study used patients who had a 10% chance of surviving for two months or more, the savings were considerably more. However, when one considers that the lives of human beings are lying in the balance, discussing ‘savings’ becomes extremely inappropriate. Few would argue that we owe our sick and elderly better than what euthanasia proposes. Such policy would inevitably diminish to a climate whereby patients feel the duty to die.

For the Christian churches, there is little division of opinion with regards to the moral and religious justification of euthanasia. Even in the case of the Netherlands, where the overwhelming majority of the population, has lost the habit of attending church on Sundays, remain influenced by Christian values and ideologies (Economist, 43). One of the most fundamental of all Christian beliefs is the sanctity of life. According to the Christian, life is a precious gift from God, which individuals guard but not own. Another is that human suffering is essentially part of our redemption, and as such, is immensely valuable in itself. The Roman Catholic Church has taken this position, but not, however, an active role in protest (Jennish, 17). Walter Farquharson, a former moderator of the United Church, laments that many church members are dissatisfied with the church’s failure to address concerns such as living wills and euthanasia. After exploring various religious aspects of such concerns, he concludes,

We believe that it is appropriate to withdraw medical treatments that are not benefiting the patient and that are prolonging suffering and dying when . . . firm evidence of disease irreversibility exists. (Skoutajan, 949)

However, both Farquharson, the Catholic Church and the vast majority of Christians do not condone the practice of active euthanasia.

Holland has the most liberal euthanasia laws than any other western country. As a case study, the effectiveness of the Dutch system is the source of intense debate. Admirers cite the care with which the Dutch debated the issue until consensus was reached, and the safeguards that they built into their system. However, the evidence adduced above demonstrates the ineffectiveness of safeguards and that Holland is skidding down the slippery slope towards licensed killing. Works Cited

Cosh, Colby. “Wanted, One Doctor Death.” Alberta Report, July 10,

1995. Vol. 22, p.22.

Fenigsen, Richard. “New Regulations Concerning Euthanasia.”

Issues in Law and Medicine, Fall, 1993 p. 167, 7p.

Jennish, Darcy. “What Would You Do?” Macleans, November 28,

1994.

Jochemsen, Henk. “Euthanasia in Holland.” Journal of Medical

Ethics, December 1994.

Skoutajan, Hanns F. “Post-Sacred Society.” Christian Century,

October 18, 1995

“The Dutch Way of Dying.” The Economist, September 17, 1994.

Vol. 332, p21, 3p.

“To Cease Upon Midnight.” The Economist, September 17, 1994.

Vol. 332, p32, 5p.

Sex Roles & Marital Interaction

Parents of young children inevitably face difficult decisions about how they will balance their work and family responsibilities. Some families decide to have a stay-at-home parent. Some, by necessity or choice, choose to have to working parents, whether full or part time. Some have little leeway in the matter, being single parent families. Whatever their situation, if these parents use media at all, they are exposed to imagery and information about work and family configurations. And, no matter the parent’s choice or circumstance, some media sources will provide reinforcement and some will not. In three steps, this paper will first define and compare traditional family structure to a more conventional, non-traditional family structure; second, analyze how mothers are becoming the breadwinners of the family; and third; examine various media portrayals of the non-traditional family.

In Fitzpatrick’s article, Marital Interaction, traditional families are defined by “their faithfulness to conventional sex roles and marriage” (239). In the 1950’s situational comedies like Leave It To Beaver, women and men’s roles were structured around traditional family roles. The father, in this case, works all day in the office, whereas the mother stays at home, attending to household duties. For centuries, (except during times of war) traditional marriage has been the cornerstone of virtually all societies, the key institution for passing on values and taking care of their children. That was then, this is now. Most American’s, at present, don’t want to return to the narrow-minded one-size-fits-all family of the 1950’s. More father’s choose to be at home; whereas, more mothers choose to pursue careers outside of the home. In a related study called, “Sex-Role Expectations,” Gilbert reports, “Many of these women are not proponents of the conventional model of marriage in which the husband is superior intellectually and occupationally to his wife. (35).

Today, less than ten percent of all households follow the “Ozzie and Harriet” model of the breadwinning father and housewife mother. (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1997). The new direction that non-traditional families are taking switches fathers from executives, to what Robert Frank calls, “the primary caregiver.” In his book The Involved Father, Frank defines the primary care giver as “the parent who spends at least 30 hours a week home alone with the children and who take care of them for the greater part of four days a week. (5)” The primary cause behind the stay-at-home father’s arrangement, according to Vavrus, is usually “practical and rational, economic and/or professional. (359)” For instance, the mother may make more money than the father. Career-driven mothers, in this case, work all day in the office, whereas the father assumes the opposite role, and tends to works all day in the home. In two studies in the 1990’s Frank compared about 500 traditional families with 400 families with at-home fathers. Frank argued that the non-traditional family is more complicated than true role-reversal. Fathers are doing what mothers have done all long—domestic housework. But, unlike traditional fathers, working mothers take over in the evenings, usually handling bathing and putting the children to bed. Still, the men hold onto many of their traditional duties—including mowing the lawn and driving the car on family outings. (42)

In other ways, the job of a stay-at-home dad is less demanding than that of the stay-at-home mom. Although women’s roles are changing outside the home, much less has changed inside the home. According to Stebbins, “Responsibility for the household and the children still falls primarily on the women, though men are becoming more involved. (11)” For example, working mothers have two full-time jobs: paid employment, and homemaking and child care. Arlie Hochschild calls this the “second shift. (35)” The first shift from homemaker to paid employment, suddenly makes a subsequent shift back to homemaker. But research on the imbalanced workingwoman’s workload does not stop there. Gilbert argues, “Professional women’s perceived housework and child care responsibilities equals nearly three times as many hours per week more than their spouse. (61)” According to Susan Lewis, “Where masculinity is socially constructed in this way, women have low expectations of assistance from their partners.” But, just the same, there are no days off as a full-time parent. Perhaps the consuming demand of full-time parenting is equivalent to full-time employment. And taking over the “emotional work” of the family and soothing a distraught child is still a less common expectation for fathers.

The changing role of women has surpassed the outdated household categories. Women of the household have embraced a more independent role, and are no longer dependent on the male for financial stability. Women are even more likely to complete their college education. New economic realities require most women to work outside the home. As a result, gender inequality in the workplace is declining and becoming more balanced. The U.S. Board of Statistics shows that more women are graduating from college. College completion rates for young women (ages 25-29) narrowly exceed those for young men, 30 percent and 28 percent, respectively. (www.census.gov/population/soc/demo/education.pdf). Moreover, the rates for women in the labor force have also risen. For example, the number of working women (ages 25-54) in the United States from1978 to 1998 has dramatically increased from 41,589 to 59, 725. In contrast, the U.S. Census Bureau show has determined that rates for working women were declining until 1996-1998, when rates held steady. (www.bls.giv/opub/mlr/1999.htm).

With more women graduating from college and entering the career field, this indicates that the [male centered] traditional family structure is also changing. Authors Nye and Bernardo support working women, and declare, “The fact is that employed mothers currently average more education than mothers not employed. (274)” The traditional pattern of the male breadwinner and the female homemaker is changing to alternative parent roles. The number of women working outside the home has grown at a staggering rate since 1950, according to Hochschild. (23)” American families are more widely acknowledging, and accepting the changing roles from American families.

Even the media is recognizing this shift. Television’s focus on family significantly influences popular culture. In other words, television provides an important source of information for family structure and interaction. But, regardless of the fact the traditional family structure is changing, and more women are working outside the home, that most media does not reflect this change. Gerber, Gross, Morgan, and Signoriealli indicate that how the images of family life as depicted on television are depicted is cause for concern:

As the mass media have come to absorb many socializing functions of the family, they have offered us images of the family that may act as touchstones by which we gauge our experiences. The seductively realistic portrayals of family and family life in the media may be the basis for our most common and pervasive conceptions and beliefs about what is natural and what is right. (3).

Although TV has the power to bring people together, to show viewers a full picture of our society, few shows adequately focus on the reverse gender role-play of working mothers and at-home fathers. In fact, two films that address this topic only present distorted views of the at-home father role. One example is the movie Mr. Mom, which parodies a non-traditional family. The father (Michael Keaton) is a Detroit automobile engineer unjustly fired by his boss. The wife (Terri Garr), is compelled to get a job to make ends meet, and soon is hired as an advertising executive. Confounded by the complexities of domestic housework and childcare, he discovers that the work of a traditional housewife is far more complicated than he realizes; indeed it is a new job. Moving from breadwinner to househusband, this movie portrays the househusband as a creative, but incompetent full-time parent.

The movie Mrs. Doubtfire, is even more extreme example of how the media portrays non-traditional families. In order to get closer to his kids, the desperate father (Robin Williams), following an ugly divorce, dresses as a woman and passes as a nanny, Career focused ex-wife (Sally Fields) gains full custody of the children, which creates an opening for a full-time nanny position. Meeting the physical demands of a housekeeper, the disguised husband fulfills the role. Concentrating on the positive aspects of the relationships, the film teaches that love is the one thing that makes a family, no matter the distance, lifestyle, or circumstance. But on the contrary, the at-home father is portrayed as a hysterical deceptive, cross-dressed nanny.

The television show Who’s the Boss? further exemplifies the media’s incomplete portrayal of a non-traditional family. The widowed father (Tony Danza) works as a housekeeper for divorced an executive mother (Judith Light). Although the work/partner relationship between both parents as depicted in Who’s the Boss? is far more balanced than in Mr. Mom or Mrs. Doubtfire, the marriage link is not established.

Aside from movies and television, advertising is another form of media that communicates a variety of gender roles. The investigation of how gendered behavior exists in ads began several decades ago. Early investigations in the 1970’s conducted by Erving Goffman, illustrate exactly how print advertisements communicates through body, positioning, gaze and gender-specific activities. Goffman found that messages of power and social status were conveyed in ads with men depicted as physically larger and positioned at a higher elevation than women. Women were often shown looking directly at the men, whereas men only averted their gaze to a male superior, such as a boss or executive. The only situation in which men were depicted as inferior or incompetent was in “women’s related work (75)”—such as making breakfast or doing the laundry.

Studies show that television news stories, however, affirm the at-home fatherly role. Vavrus argued, “…news stories depict issues that stay-at-home dads face quite similarly, that reassert the competence and manliness of Mr. Moms…to validate men as a primary parent, to show that dads can be moms to. (358)” The news depicts an at-home father’s role as domestic and neutral. By challenging the more traditional masculine identity as breadwinner, the Mr. Mom role is becoming more widely accepted. Vavrus illustrates this consensus by saying:

Because we raise men to provide for and not care for children, culturally men have some psychological conflict when they begin doing this. And they go through a transitional period where they might doubt themselves. They certainly feel lonely and isolated because they aren’t
a lot of other fathers around. And sometimes their internal conflict can be reflected in marital conflicts as well. But if they can negotiate this transaction, intimate fathering has lots of positive drawbacks. Dads that stay at hoe express much more satisfaction in their fathering role and ultimately have much higher self-esteem and the couple experiences more marital satisfaction because the wife is very happy to have a chance to go out and pursue her career goals and have help at home as well. (359)

These gendered ads also exist in ads that are directed at children. Research indicates that’s ads for toys show boys as, “Strong, independent, athletic, in control of their environment, adventurous, and aggressive. Girls are [shown as] giggling, gentle, and affectionate, fixated on their physical appearance, and extremely well behaved. (Sobieraj)” Further, in commercials for action figures, Sobieraj reports, “Boys are shown manipulating action figures to shoot guns at one another, fight with knives, punch and kick, and inflict harm in various other ways. (44)” Ads directed at children rarely break out of stereotyped expectations for boys and girls. The role expectations created by various provide only a partial or skewed perspective on both family structure and interaction. Moreover, “The traditional view of men as providers and women as homemakers reinforces the myth of separate worlds. (Voydanoff)”

The final question is how—or even whether, children are different for being raised by at-home fathers. There is so little research on this that this paper will consider it an open question.

Parents investing time in ordinary aspects in their children’s lives is important, and having two involved parents demonstrates equality among gender. The bottom line is that men and women must be given the freedom to choose how their family is structured, and not judged for who is financially providing for it. And to support this transition, the media’s distorted portrayal of family must look beyond the traditional family structure, and accurately depict a new generation of at-home fathers.


References
Fitzpatrick, Mary Anne. Between Husbands & Wives; Communication in Marriage. Beverly Hills: Sage Productions, 1988.

Gilbert, Lucia Albino. Men in Dual-Career Families: Current Realities and Future Prospects. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1985.

Goffman, Erving. Gender Advertisements. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.
Hochschild, Arlie. The Second Shift: Workijg Parents and the Reolution at Home. New York: Viking, 1989.

Nye, Ivan F & Felix M. Berardo. The Family: Its Structure and Interaction. New York: Macmillian Publishing Co., Inc., 1973.

Parasuraman, Saroj, and Jeffery H Greenhaus. The Changing World of Work and Family. Pgs. 3-14 in Integrating Work and Family: Challenges and Choices for a Changing World. Westport, CT: Quorom, 1997.

Sobieraj, Sarah. Beauty and the Beast: Toy Commercials and the Social Construction of Gender. Sociological Abstracts, 1996.

Stebbins, Leslie F. Work and Family in America. Santa Barbara, CA: Contemporary World Issues, 2001.

U.S. Bureau of Census. Educational Attainment in the United States: March 2000
(www.census.gov/population/socdemo/education/p.20-536/p20-536.pdf)

U.S. Bureau of Census, Labor Work Force Projections to 2008: Steady Growth and Changing Composition: 1998-2008. (www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1999/11/art3exec.htm)

Vavrus, Mary Douglas. (2002). Domesticating Patriarchy: Hegemonic Masculinity and Television’s “Mr. Mom.” Critical Studies in Media Communication. 19 (3, September), 352-375.

Astronomy Face Cream

Routinely, late night infomercials tout pseudoscience-based pills and creams that promise to make one skinny, young or beautiful—with no exercise, and minimal effort. Apparently, these miraculous cure-all appeals can effortlessly be found for any infomercial idolater who seeks such drive-through enlightenment. Consumers want what they want, when they want it, and expect the particular results they desire. One thing is for sure: anti-aging cream appeals to almost everyone’s vanity. Realistically speaking, are anti-aging creams really that fabulous…like the infomercials claim? Do they really work? Are they really worth the money? Or is it just a scam? This paper will begin by analyzing claims made by a company called Revitacel and its product line called Berridroxy. This line of anti-aging products consists of cleansers, moisturizers, eye gels, and a masque. The next step is to determine whether or not such claims are scientifically based. Finally, a Dateline NBC investigation will be examined, which uncovered certain truths about anti-aging creams.

The predominant argument for the benefits of anti-aging cream probably comes from those who believe that the product they are using has documented medical and scientific benefits. Not necessarily. However, perhaps the placebo effect should first be taken into account. The placebo effect is a psychological reaction to the promise of a result. For example, if people think that something is going to make them feel a certain way, they often do. Maybe there really are anti-aging cream fanatics who swear by the marvel effects of such creams. Revitacel Skin Care is a perfect example of a company who claims to offer “…the latest in skin care technology” (www.revitacel.net). Now, it must be determined whether or not their products have been scientifically proven to defy the aging process.

As a prime means of advertisement, Revitacel Skin Care uses either the Internet, or frequent late night infomercials. In fact, even Emmy-Award winning actress Lindsay Wagner hosts the infomercial. A questionable claim found on Revitacel’s website is: “This remarkable compound is clinically shown to reduce wrinkles and the other signs of aging” (www.revitacel.net). For example, one’s skin should appear firm, supple, and wrinkle free while using such products. Interestingly, there appears to be no credible team of scientists or clinic that determined this. No credible source is listed. Worse, their data cannot be found in order to be tested for accuracy. One could only assume that Lindsay Wagner is telling the truth. Further, doctors or dermatologists do not sell Revitacel products. “All Revitacel products are available by ordering through the Internet or by calling our Customer Service Center in Arizona,” their website discloses. (www.revitacel.net) Isn’t that interesting? To remain competitive and carry top-of-the-line products for their patients, it is obvious that doctors or dermatologists would carry Revitacel’s products. However, as Revitacel proudly purports of their products, “It has been a true success story for this little company” (www.revitacel.net). Baseless, sensational claims like this are not legitimate, yet their appeal is true to customers. Fortunately, there is real proof that such anti-aging products really do not deliver what they promise.

The most damaging evidence against any anti-aging cream, whether advertised on television or sold in a department store, comes from a recent investigation done by Dateline NBC. During their investigation, called, “Decoding the 'Magic' of Skin Care,” two top creams were selected, used for three months, and then exposed as frauds (www.msnbc.msn.com). Referred to as “genetic cosmetics,” the only factual evidence actually uncovered by Dateline is that all anti-aging creams are essentially chalked full of miscellaneous moisturizing ingredients, then sold as expensive miracle creams. Dr. Stephen Antzark, author of the book, Cosmetics Unmasked, argues that, “The majority of the ingredients are there because they hold on to water and plump the skin only temporarily” (www.msnbc.msn.com). Does this mean that only while using the product does one’s skin actually look or feel different? Dateline NBC chose Dr. Antzark as a cosmetics expert to determine the miracle make-up of such creams. According to Antzark, “for the products to make significant changes they would have to penetrate the skin deeply, and they never do” (www.msnbc.msn.com).

Nevertheless, there must be some explanation for how the anti-aging products actually work. For example, perhaps the result of using such a potent moisturizing cream is most effective during use, and not long afterwards. Conceivably, the erosive effects of time on one’s face return when the usage of such anti-aging skin care products stop. Antzark warns, "At the end of the day, it will do nothing but moisturize the skin. And that in itself, will improve the appearance. But only as long as you're wearing the moisturizer" (www.msnbc.msn.com). In sum, anti-aging creams are really over-priced moisturizers that either don’t work, or render results that don’t last.

If this is the case, and most claims made by anti-aging cream companies are fraudulent and/or false, how can they get away with it? Is the only requirement to avoid a fraud claim with the FTC, a full refund? For example, Revitacel offers “a lifetime unconditional money-back guarantee on your initial purchase” (www.revitacel.net). Isn’t it ironic that such a reputable company does not extend their refund beyond the initial purchase? Well, it turns out that in the United States, according to Dateline, “…as long as products don’t actually harm anyone, and as long there aren't a lot of complaints about consumers being misled, the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration don't pay much attention” (www.msnbc.msn.com). They take the idea that if consumers are stupid enough to purchase such products as these, then a loss of money out of pocket is only the consumer’s responsibility. Based on this rationale, almost any experimental miraculous cream or pill can be sold to the public.

Sure it is true that the human body is a complicated thing to own, manage, and maintain. With so many opportunities for betterment, it seems only natural that people will want to enhance themselves or their appearance in some way. However, the only fact here is that the childlike sense of wonder experienced by too many late night infomercial watchers, is simply a seductive mesmerizing notion being created by companies such as Revitacel. The impossible is suddenly possible. For example, just like the movie “Back to the Future” illustrates, when a person has enough imagination, time and money, they can not only turn back the clock, but also extend their youthful appearance. Can the clock of time and aging really be turned back? Not so. Without any real scientific proof for such products, the surplus of false testimonials delivered by paid actors like Lindsay Wagner only rejuvenates pseudoscience (on late night infomercials).


Cites Referenced:


1) Corderi, Victoria. Decoding the 'magic' of skin care; Are those expensive creams really worth the money? October 2004 (http://www.msnbc.msn.com)


2) Revitacel Skin Care Rewards. (http://www.revitacel.net)

Law School - Personal Statement

Experience has revealed to me that each individual is largely in control of his or her own destiny; sometimes, however, a certain amount of assistance is required to make this realization. This assistance can come in many forms, but for me it came as a high school counselor whose encouragement turned me from the havoc and wreckage of my childhood and towards a fulfilling life of independence, confidence, and eventual joy. As I have grown, I have realized the importance of empowering others, and feel that the study of law in the pursuit of justice is a distinguishable method of repaying the generous acts of those who have helped me.

As a child, any dreams I had for the future were overshadowed by the indiscretions of my physically and emotionally abusive mother. When I was five years old, I walked in on my mother, who was then married to my father, sleeping with another man. My mother dragged me by my hair into my room, and as she beat me for what I had seen, she promised much worse should I ever tell anyone. As my mother continued her campaign of adultery with a long chain of faceless men, I was forced to lie to my father, who offered the only modicum of stability in our home. I believed any threat she made to ensure her secrets were kept; my mother punished even innocent mistakes by beating me, telling me how “stupid” I was, or how she wished she’d never had me. Eventually my mother’s behavior drove my father from our lives. His absence cemented my mother’s ability to torment me without reprisal, even going so far as to use her degree in psychology to threaten me with being committed to a mental institution. My father’s departure from the house had marked the beginning of a downward spiral of our financial situation as well. Though my mother made an ample amount of money, she squandered it philandering with boyfriends. Our utilities were routinely shut off and our cars repossessed; we even eventually lost our childhood home.

With age, I was able to gain a clearer perspective of my mother’s actions. Throughout my childhood I had witnessed her using drugs and drinking heavily but was not able to clearly understand that what she was doing was wrong. As a teenager, my realization that she was abusing these substances did explain some of her behaviors; yet it did nothing to alleviate the constant fear, and feeling of utter helplessness, at what she would do next. The turmoil of my home life reached its height when one of my mother’s boyfriends, a man who had previously been jailed for fraud, moved in with us. For the next few years, I lived in fear of his temper and that he might act on his inappropriate comments. Living with us he reverted back to his criminal ways, and my mother joined him. Perhaps the most ironic of such an instance was when my mother convinced a group of investors to finance a foster home, which she would oversee, and stole a large portion of the investment. My mother’s fear of being caught cast a new shadow over our house. I was constantly warned never to tell anyone where we lived and to look out for those she feared would be coming after her. Though I logically knew that I wasn’t at fault, the fear of “being caught” hung heavy over my head.

The chaos that characterized my home life affected my life outside the house as well. In elementary school I had been in the “gifted and talented” classes and had enjoyed learning. However, my feelings of lethargy and apathy grew by the year, finally coming to a head in high school. My mother had so defeated my spirit that I no longer gave thought to going to college. My guidance counselor, Mr. Cummings, however, saw potential in me. Despite my reluctance, he pushed me to take the S.A.T., even going so far as to secure a fee waiver for me. When I received my scores, which were higher than I ever imagined, he encouraged me further. He called many schools to personally vouch for my potential, wrote recommendations for me, and set up interviews with admittance counselors. His support paid off and I was admitted to the University of California, Riverside. Mr. Lemons had helped me to rediscover my dreams and the belief that I could forge a new life for myself, and I was incredibly grateful for this gift.

My mother did not easily relinquish her control over me. As I neared high school graduation, her hostility toward me grew. Intent on destroying my self-confidence, she openly doubted that I would be able to succeed in college. One morning when I woke up, I discovered that she had sold my car, which was to be my transportation to school. Recognizing that this would be only the first of her attempts to sabotage my opportunity for an education, I decided to stand up for myself and assert my independence from my mother. I went to UCR and fought to be declared financially independent so that I could live on campus and finance my own education. Starting college I was not only beginning a new chapter of my life, but also cutting the ties to my past.

My years as an undergraduate represented a new challenge. Out on my own, I was learning for the first time how to navigate life as an independent adult, without the financial or emotional support of my family. I worked long hours to support myself while maintaining a schedule of rigorous study. Still, I welcomed these hardships in return for the benefits of college. The chaos of my previous life was replaced by the stability of hard work and study; and I was rewarded both with academic excellence and the sense that I was developing my mind, becoming sharper and more capable all the time. I also felt stronger each day in my ability to take care of myself, and to be the author of my own destiny. I believe my decision to major in Classics reflected how I chose to define myself in my new life. The subject required a strong analytical and logical mind, which I worked hard to further develop. My professors were more demanding than I had experienced in other disciplines; but the classes were so small that every action was afforded scrutiny, every neglected assignment noticed. This meant that success required not only hard work, but also diligence, responsibility, and enthusiasm. I enjoyed the opportunity to refine these characteristics in myself.

As my confidence developed, I began to consider studying law. In my senior year my professors further reinforced this confidence, as I was rewarded with several honors. The head of the department of Comparative Literature and Foreign Languages, a teacher I had great respect and admiration for, chose me to be his research assistant for a book he was writing. Another professor chose me to be his grading assistant, a job normally reserved for graduate students. In this capacity I was entrusted with grading other students’ work and handling the students’ evaluation of the professor. Finally, at an end-of-the-year party for Classics majors, the department heads awarded me with the unofficial “Greek Prize” for excellence in my studies. Accepting this reward, I reflected on how far I had come, the help of those that had allowed me to achieve so much, and the debt I owed as a result.

Presently I work as the assistant to the Chief Financial Officer at a non-profit organization. Here, observing lawyers engaging in pro-bono work has rekindled my interest in the study of law. Despite my accomplishments, I still remember my childhood feelings of frustration and helplessness, and would like to help others in the same situation. Having reflected on the complexity and inaccessibility of the rules that govern our lives, I believe that by gaining knowledge of these workings I will gain the means to empower others who face these feelings of impotence. Especially of concern to me are children, who are most vulnerable to feeling powerless and unrepresented; I believe that my life experiences have made me uniquely qualified to work with and be an advocate for them. I now look forward to the study of law, as it is a field worthy of the dedication and enthusiasm I will bring to it in the pursuit of returning a sense of empowerment and self determination to those who have lived through situations similar to my own.

Rhetoric & the Discourses of Power in Court Culture

Major differences lie between Europe and China and Japan hundreds of years ago as much as they do today. China and Japan seemed to have a more dignified way of handling conflicts within the court, compared to Europe, which beheaded and tortured whoever they wanted because it was deserved. The scholastic book, Rhetoric & the Discourses of Power in Court Culture, edited by David R. Knechtges and Eugene Vance, portrays the contrasts between Europe and China and Japan in their courts, although similarities are also attainable.

This book is a scholarly treatise based on thorough research, which is obvious to see from the pages of notes containing the sources used for the information read in the chapters. This book is not written for a broad audience because it specializes on focusing clearly on the court culture specifically in Europe, during the middle ages and before, and China and Japan around the same time, including some documents from B.C.E. It was written by many scholars and experts in separate fields, who assembled a numerous amount of times for years to construct a reliable book. This work does not base itself on feeble sources such as gossip or biased opinions, however, although some of the ancient sources it uses does not have proof that it is completely true, the authors remain skeptical about the source and obtain as much truth as possible. The book doesn’t completely look at both sides of the story, but it is evident that an effort was made based on the facts they were given. It is a dependable source of information and appears trustworthy with the extent of research used to create it.

This book focuses on, like I wrote earlier, the practices and customs of the court and courtiers of China, Japan, and Europe. The author’s purpose was to portray the differences of the traditions displayed in the history of the court culture, and to define how everything used to be handled within their given circumstances. The authors’ main purpose is to study the court as a high power and the effects it had on the way of life of the larger culture, or the kingdom that was under it. The authors verifies his thesis through the chapters of the book, starting with chapter discussing Cao Pi’s new accession to Emperor of the Wei dynasty, and how at first he had many refusals to accept the imperial throne, by repeatedly (over 3 times) refusing the throne because, “…after he has issued “repeated refusals” would it be proper to discuss the possibility of his accepting the throne”(22). The author shows the reader through this chapter that the Chinese court culture thought it was only proper to not act as if they were worthy but to be modest in agreements. Also, the chapter shows how the accession ceremony took place in a small village instead of being in a highly prestigious court or palace. The author uses this part of the chapter to show how the Chinese didn’t find it important to appear as nobility and too good for the common people, but they welcomed the townspeople.

The next chapter discusses the court, politics, and rhetoric of England, which seems to differ greatly from the previous chapter. The chapter begins by explaining in great detail the death of King Edward II, and follows to say, “Ambition, suspicion, and condemnation tore the royal court apart and divided the nobility into rival factions whose competition resulted in extraordinary violence”(37). The author of this chapter, Scott L. Waugh acknowledges that the main point of this chapter is to portray the cruelty that lied within the European courts. England didn’t have an official court, with rules and routines, which means there were no official records to base these historic facts on, leading Waugh to read the different accounts of the stories to find which parts were fact or a biased fiction. Then the chapter goes on to show how the stability of the country relied on the immediate group surrounding the king and their struggles, which resulted in the country’s struggles also. The troubles coming from the inside circle of the court was between Edward II and his wife, who deeply hated his job because he listened more to his courtiers (who secretly wanted to get rid of her) than to his wife. Eventually the wife deemed to seek revenge on her husband, secretly plotting his murder, which eventually came through. This supports the author’s thesis by illustrating how the troubles inside the court directly reflected on their job as king, resulting in problems in society. But once his son Edward III came to the throne, his mother and his courtiers did exactly what Edward II’s courtiers did with him, try to tell him how to run the throne and what to do. Waugh shows here that the court couldn’t stop what it was used to, with the immediate people in the court trying to live vicariously through the King. Waugh then goes into detail describing the different death penalties of their time, showing how brutal an era it was, especially by having the public participate in watching the death, but these ways were also used to scare the public into obeying the law.

Pauline Yu, author of the next chapter, describes the Imperial taste of poems in the early ninth century. She describes how poetry writing was used in the civil service examination, proving that heavy learning was required for poetry. Through this, the author portrays how important it was to China to have smart and civilized citizens, and especially the ones who take the examination. But later in the chapter, Yu reveals from a different source that, “Among all the poems written for the examination, very few are any good” (77). Yu tries to express through this that although there weren’t many talented poets; it is the fact that the civil service exam required the test takers to be learned people who felt they were prepared to write because of the extended amount of studying used on learning the art of poetry. The author ends the chapter by saying, “…the self-representation of the court in early ninth century: its graceful, balanced decorum is precisely the image of the world that the emperor wanted to see” (87), showing how greatly the emperor cared about the image of his empire.

Steven D. Carter discusses in the next chapter how in Japan automatically the military men were accepted in the high class people with the arts such as poetry and music, but also they were involved in the court culture. Carter then displays how Japan liked to use marriage as forming alliances, also letting people get closer to the court culture. He even goes into detail to describe Kaneyoshi and his ways of creating alliances with important families by having children from different families to help his social standing. Carter’s purpose of this chapter is to show how easily attainable it was to create ties with people with a high social standing, and how important success relied on social standing. Also his social standing determined his trustworthiness because nobody questioned his interpretations and ideas on the books of poetry that he inherited.

In some chapters later, Paul Edward Dutton presents the topic of secrets during the middle ages, which again makes Europe seem like a dark environment lacking dignity. This chapter shows how Europe lived off of gossip and secrets, having a difficult time sending letters because hardly anyone could be trusted to not open a letter when delivering it. Through this chapter, Dutton shows how European courts relied on gossip to determine serious life or death decisions, based on word of mouth. Hasty choices were made, resulting in an even less respectable court, highly unlike the China or Japan courts.

The authors and editors of this book make China‘s court and people to be very polite and courteous of one another. Although they have arguments as displayed in the first chapter where Cao Pi was refusing the Imperial throne, he did it respectably by giving excuses why he shouldn’t be on the throne, while everyone else was trying to convince him to accept it. Nobody gave up on him and the leaders were persistent on having him rule the throne, although, according to the way that Europe is portrayed through this book, Europe would have instantly chosen another emperor, not wanting to be patient and well mannered. Europe is portrayed through this book as a fiend that lives on blood, torture, and secrets. There is a great contrast in the chapters describing the Chinese and the Europeans in the court. Especially between the first, second, and third chapter because both of the Chapters on China describe how calmly China goes about asking Cao Pi to be Emperor, and the third chapter discusses how China thought poetry was very important for their society, or learned people to know. China cared more about how its court appeared, and wanted it to seem balanced and graceful, unlike the portrayal of Europe which only portrays revenge and punishments as what was most important to the court, according to the book.

The book’s title does reflect accurately the main disposition of what is discussed in the book. Also the subtitle correctly describes what is also in the book, although Japan and Europe do not have as nearly as many chapters as China does. The authors of the book have verified the thesis to my liking although I would like to hear if China ever had any real trouble in its courts as compared to Europe’s likeness with punishment and torture. There are hundreds of sources in the book used from real accounts at the time. The materials used for evidence are consisted of hearsay (because it from hundreds of years ago), and writings from the time period. It seems that nine books have been used to make a tenth with all the sources that are used, except that this book organizes the main ideas from different sources to find the most likely truth. Most generalizations are supported by evidence but the evidence can only be so trustworthy because it is unknown how biased the piece of work might be in the 1300’s or earlier. The author uses efficient examples, especially in the poetry chapters because it shows many poems by the Chinese or Japanese. There are convincing cases made for the stands taken, although I would like to know if China really was that pure compared to Europe, or if purposely left out those certain aspects of China. The overall quality of the book is substantial, it is prestige in some chapters, but the quality of it all is very informative and useful for anyone wanting to learn in great detail of the culture of courts before the Middle Ages in Europe, China, and Japan.

A New Pyramid for Overweight Children

After reading the article regarding the updated food pyramid, I got the impression that this new version was much clearer and able to be personalized according to different types of people. I found it interesting that the Pyramid Tracker feature allows a person to enter their height, weight, gender, age, and level of physical activity and then it calculates the number of calories and amount of each food that you should eat.

The most surprising option is the one that calculates food servings for vegetarians. I always thought that not eating meat was unhealthy (and I still do), so it was a shock to see that the U.S. Department of Agriculture acknowledged and accommodated these people.

I used the sample chart to determine my own estimated caloric intake and highlighted the suggested serving amounts. I consider myself a healthy eater, so I was not too concerned about memorizing the serving amounts. When I did try to study it though, it seemed confusing. It made sense in theory, but it appears very hard to translate into everyday life. How am I supposed to remember how many ounces of grains I’ve had? It is a helpful guideline though.

Are Low-Carb Diets Good for Kids?

I really enjoyed this article. I have been very much against fad diets, and I consider the Atkin’s diet a fad. Consuming an unbalanced proportion of one type of nutrient just seems logically bad for a person (have you ever heard of ‘too much of a good thing?’). It makes perfect sense that a low-carb diet would be unhealthy for children because that is the time when the body needs all of the nutrients it can get, not a lot of only one nutrient.

I also completely agree with the paragraph stating that a lack of carbs can dull one’s thinking abilities. Whenever I haven’t had enough carbs, I get headache’s and feel light-headed and ill. Once I have some carbohydrates, I feel better almost instantly.